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To understand acceleration, let us take a numerical example. An object starts from rest and picks up speed such that its velocity becomes 5 m/s in 10 seconds. It took 10 s to go from 0 m/s to 5 m/s. Then, the rate at which its velocity changed is: (5 m/s – 0)/10 s = 0.5 m/s2. Therefore, its acceleration is 0.5 m/s2. Examples Equation Direction of Acceleration Example Problems Where Δv: Change in velocity Δt: Time interval over which the change occurred SI Unit: meters per second squared or m/s2 Imperial unit: feet per second squared or ft/s Note:...

The process occurs in the chloroplasts of cells, specifically in the thylakoid membranes. In photophosphorylation or light-dependent reactions, the light gets absorbed by chlorophyll and other pigment molecules. Then, this light energy is used to create a high-energy electron donor and a lower-energy electron acceptor. As a result, electrons move spontaneously from donor to acceptor through an electron transport chain (ETC). Based on the path of electrons in the ETC of the primary photochemical reaction, there are two types of photophosphorylation processes....

It involves glycolysis but not the other two stages of aerobic respiration. Like glycolysis, fermentation occurs in the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. ‘Ferment’ comes from the Latin word fervere, meaning ‘to boil’. The science of fermentation is called zymology. Some common fermented food beverages are wine, beer, cheese, yogurt, sauerkraut, kimchi, and pepperoni. A Short History: Timeline Why Does Fermentation Occur in the Cell How does Fermentation Work, and What are its Types What is the Purpose of Fermentation Anaerobic Cellular Respiration The ETC being non-functional, the NADH made in glycolysis cannot transfer its electrons and revert to NAD+....

Who Invented the Lever Greek mathematician Archimedes was the first to develop lever principles in 260 B.C. Parts of a Lever How Does a Lever Work Types of Levers Applications and Uses of Lever The beam rotates about the pivot point. A torque is necessary to rotate the beam and lift the object. The basic principle is that the applied torque manifests at the load. Mechanical Advantage of a Lever The mechanical advantage measures how much a lever can multiply the force applied to lift or move the load....

What Causes Surface Tension Surface Tension of Water Cohesive and Adhesive Forces Examples of Surface Tension Surface Tension Values Units Since surface tension refers to the interactive force, it is quantified as the force per unit length or energy per unit area. Therefore, its SI unit is Newton per meter of N/m. Its cgs unit is dyne/cm. In terms of energy units, they are Joules per square meter (J/m2) in the SI system and ergs/cm2 in the cgs system....

The term ‘turgor’ came from the Latin word ‘turgere’, meaning ‘to be swollen.’ The word ‘pressure’ comes from ‘pressura’, meaning ‘to press’. As an example, think of a balloon filled with water instead of air. How does it Develop in a Plant Cell Turgor Pressure and Osmoregulation How to Calculate Turgor Pressure Importance of Turgor Pressure When placed in a hypertonic solution, water flows out of the cell, causing the cell to decrease in volume and become flaccid....

Germline Mutations are mutations that occur only in the reproductive cells or gametes. Such mutations transmit to every cell of the offspring.Somatic mutations occur in other cells (somatic cells) of the body apart from germ cells. Such mutations are not passed to the offspring and remain confined to only one cell. However, all mutations, germline or somatic, are caused either due to errors in DNA replication or due to DNA damage....

Under the microscope, an animal cell shows many different parts called organelles, that work together to keep the cell functional. 1) Centrioles They are paired tube-like organelle composed of a protein called tubulin. Centrioles are about 500nm long and 200nm in width that are found close to the nucleus and helps in cell division. They are also found in cilia and flagella. Functions Helping in cell division by allowing separation of chromosomes Helping in cell movement...

Archimedes’ Screw Design: Archimedes’ screw consists of a screw, which is nothing but a helical surface wound around a cylindrical shaft, fitted inside a hollow pipe. On setting it up at an angle with the water level and turning the shaft manually or by a windmill, the water raises up the helical structure of the screw to the top end. Finally, the water pours out of the tube from its upper opening....

What is Bernoulli’s Equation Derivation of Bernoulli’s Equation Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle and Equation Limitation of Bernoulli’s Equation Example Problems and Solutions The equation is named after Swiss mathematician and physicist Daniel Bernoulli, who published it in 1738. Later, in 1752, another Swiss mathematician and physicist, Leonhard Euler, derived the equation. General Formula of Bernoulli’s Equation The equation is given as, p + ½ ρv2 + ρgh = constant Where, p: static pressure ρ: density of the fluid v: velocity of the fluid g: acceleration due to gravity h: height of the fluid from a reference The first term is the energy due to fluid pressure....

Hugo von Mohl first discovered chloroplast in 1837, while Eduard Strasburger, in 1884, adopted the term ‘chloroplasts’. Other Important Functions: Producing NADPH, the reducing agent required to synthesize glucose in the dark reaction of photosynthesis and also in other biosynthetic pathwaysReleasing molecular oxygen (O2) by photolysis of waterProviding protection to plants against pathogens along with nucleus, cell membrane and endoplasmic reticulum of the cellReproducing independently from the rest of the cell, since it has its own DNAProducing amino acids and lipids required for the production of chloroplast membrane

Examples How to Calculate Elastic Potential Energy Elastic Potential Energy in 3D Problems and Solutions The spring of a wind-up clockThe stretched bow of an archerA bent diving board just before a diver takes a diveThe rubber band of a stretched slingshotWhen a bouncy ball hits the wall or floor Where, F: Applied force Δx: Deformation k: Spring constant The constant of proportionality is known as the spring constant. Its unit is Newton per meter or Nm-1....

1. Radio waves As the name suggests, radio waves are emitted by radio stations, TV stations, and cellphone towers. They have a wavelength range of 1-105 meters. 2. Microwaves Microwaves are used to broadcast information through space as they can penetrate through clouds and light rain. They are also used to heat food, which led to the invention of the microwave oven. 3. Infrared Infrared radiation is thermal radiation that carries heat....

The word ‘endocytosis’ is derived from the Greek words ‘endon’, meaning ‘within’, ‘kytos’, meaning ‘cell’, and ‘-osis’, meaning ‘process’. The process was first proposed and described by cytologist Christian De Duve in 1963. Examples of Substances Transported Using the Process Substances like fluids, electrolytes, proteins, and other macromolecules are taken up inside the cell using endocytosis. Steps Involved in Phagocytosis Example Immune cells such as white blood cells take up antigens such as viruses, bacteria, or dead cells, digest the content and move the digested material outside the cell....

From this result, Mendel put forward three laws of inheritance that could define the pattern of inheritance not only in pea plants but also in other organisms. They are the Law of Dominance, Law of Segregation, and Law of Independent Assortment. Here, we will study the Law of Segregation in detail. The segregation law is also known as Mendel’s First Law of Genetics. Law of Segregation Basis of Segregation Law of Segregation Example Conclusion When an egg and a sperm cell unite during fertilization, they form a new individual whose genotype consists of alleles in the gametes....

What is Radial Symmetry Examples of Radial Symmetry Characteristics of Animals Advantages and Disadvantages In animals, two phyla – cnidarians and echinoderms exhibit radial symmetry. Cnidarians include jellyfish, sea anemones, and corals. Specifically, jellyfish has radial symmetry in four points around its center. Again, starfish, sea urchins, and sand dollars are echinoderms. Sea stars have radial symmetry in five points around their center. have many lines of symmetryhave a top and a bottom region but do not have a front, back, or distinctive left and right sideshave a side with a mouth – the oral side....

The history of the reflecting telescope goes back to 1668 when the famous British physicist and mathematician Sir Isaac Newton invented it as a replacement for refracting telescope. It was later named as the Newtonian telescope, which was constructed from a concave primary mirror and a flat diagonal secondary mirror. Hale Telescope at Palomar ObservatoryKeck 1 and Keck 2 at W.M. Keck ObservatoryLarge Binocular Telescope at Mount Graham International ObservatoryGran Telescopio Canarias at Roque de Los Muchachos ObservatoryGiant Magellan Telescope at Las Campanas ObservatoryHubble Space Telescope...

A solenoid can be used as an electromagnet when the ends are connected to a battery. A current passing through it induces a controlled magnetic field whose direction is given by the right-hand rule. The magnetic field can be enhanced by wrapping the wire around a solid metallic core, typically iron, forming a medium for the field to flow. However, the loops of wire are kept insulated from one another....

Ureotelic animals cannot excrete ammonia directly and convert it into a more straightforward form, the urea in the liver. The urea is then transported to the kidney through the bloodstream and excreted as urine. Also known as the Krebs-Henseleit cycle, the urea cycle was discovered by Hans Krebs and Kurt Henseleit in 1932, a few years before the TCA cycle. Steps of the Urea Cycle Regulation of the Urea Cycle What is the Function of the Urea Cycle Disorders of the Urea Cycle In the Mitochondria Step 1: The first step involves entering ammonia into the cycle....

What Makes Ice Less Dense Than Liquid Water Understanding the Reason Behind This Water is made up of 2 atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen. The slightly negatively charged oxygen atom of a water molecule is attracted towards the positively charged hydrogen atoms of neighboring water molecules, giving rise to weak hydrogen bonds between them. In the liquid state, all the water molecules are loosely held together and are free to move....