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Examples of cells that use binary fission for division Bacteria, archaea, and cyanobacteria (prokaryotes), as well as amoeba and Paramecium (eukaryotes) use binary fission as their primary mode of reproduction. Some cell organelles like mitochondria also undergo cell division by this process. For example, the bacterium E. coli typically divides once every 20 minutes at 37 °C, so an entire population can become double in that time and temperature. This can be practically related in cases of food spoilage where nutrients and moisture present in the food stimulates bacterial growth through binary fission, eventually making the food unsuitable for consumption....

Electron Shells in the Rutherford-Bohr Model How Many Electrons Are in Each Shell Electron Sub-shells Electron Orbitals Periodic Table with Electron Shells They are also labeled as K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q going from the innermost shell to the outermost one. So, the K-shell is closest to the nucleus, and Q-shell is the farthest. The general rule stating the number of electrons present in a shell is 2n2, where ‘n’ stands for the number of shells; for example, K-shell = 1, L-shell = 2....

Being an integral part of the endocytic pathway, they also receive proteins internalized by the cell through endocytosis. Endosomes further help to recycle these proteins to the plasma membrane or are sorted for degradation through lysosomes. Types of Endosomes Endosome Pathway Maturation and Recycling of Endosome Other Functions of Endosomes in a Cell Endosome and Human Diseases Endosome vs. Lysosome Endosomes also receive proteins and lipids synthesized from the rough endoplasmic reticulum and transfer them to the Golgi for sorting at the trans-Golgi network (TGN)....

Mallette, Exton, Park, and Felig et al. proposed it for the first time between 1969 and 1970 in the skeletal muscle. The Steps of the Glucose-Alanine Cycle Purpose of the Glucose-Alanine Cycle For example, aspartate transfers its amino group to glutamate when it reacts with oxaloacetate, forming α-ketoglutarate. Aspartate + Oxaloacetate ⇄ α-Ketoglutarate + Glutamate Some synthesized amino acids are used during metabolism, while others are used during glucose synthesis through gluconeogenesis....

They enter the leaf as a single vein, and inside it, they form multiple branches forming venules. The overall arrangement of veins in a leaf (venation pattern) in flowering plants varies from one plant lineage to another. What are the Functions of Veins in a Leaf Types of Leaf Veins The xylem moves fluids from the root upwards, entering the leaf through the midrib and then branching off with the help of venules....

Formula Proof Applications Example Problems IZ = IX + IY Where IX, IY, and IZ are the moments of inertia about the x-, y-, and z-axis, respectively. The expressions for the moment of inertia about the three axes are given by Using Pythagoras’ theorem, r2 = x2 + y2 Therefore, IZ = (\int )(x2 + y2) dm => IZ = (\int )x2 dm + (\int )y2 dm => IZ = IX + IY Thus, we have proved the perpendicular axis theorem....

Jan Ingenhousz, the Dutch-born British physician and scientist, discovered the process of photosynthesis. Stages of the Process Photosynthesis occurs in two stages: The Light-dependent Reaction Takes place in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts only during the day in the presence of sunlightHigh-energy phosphate molecules adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and the reducing agent NADPH are produced with the help of electron transport chain The Light-independent or Dark Reaction (Calvin cycle) Takes place in the stroma of chloroplast in the absence of light that helps to fix carbonATP and NADPH produced in the light reaction are utilized along with carbon dioxide to produce sugar in the form of glucose...

Symbol A PNP transistor is commonly represented in circuit diagrams using specific graphical symbols to denote its components and functionality. The emitter, represented by an outward arrow, indicates conventional current flow from the transistor. The base, situated centrally, controls the flow of current between the emitter and collector. It is denoted by a thin line intersecting the emitter arrow. The collector, opposite to the emitter, serves as the exit point for the current, symbolized by a bar perpendicular to the emitter arrow....

Function

The term ‘synapse’ was first coined by Charles Sherrington in 1897, from the Greek words ‘syn’, which means ‘together’ and ‘haptein’ meaning ‘to clasp’. Location Structure What Happens at the Synapse Parts Synapses are composed of three main parts: Types Synapses are fundamentally classified into two different types based on how the neurons function to communicate: 1) chemical synapse and 2) electrical synapse. Chemical Synapse Found in vertebrates, it works using neurotransmitters that establish the virtual connection between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons....

It is widely used to make copies of plants in large numbers in a short period. The majority of plants found in nurseries were all made through vegetative propagation. It occurs through the fragmentation and regeneration of specialized vegetative plant parts. Many plants propagated vegetatively can also reproduce sexually. Apart from plants, vegetative reproduction, such as fragmentation, fission, and budding, are also found in fungi. Process of Vegetative Propagation Types of Vegetative Propagation Advantages of Vegetative Propagation Disadvantages of Vegetative Propagation Vegetative propagation requires tissues containing undifferentiated cells, called meristems....

In other words, crystallization refers to transforming from a disordered, amorphous state to a well-defined, ordered crystalline structure. This process occurs through the formation of crystals, which are three-dimensional arrangements of atoms or molecules characterized by a repeating pattern. Crystals exhibit unique geometric shapes and possess distinct physical and chemical properties, making them essential in various scientific and industrial applications. Crystallization Process Examples of Crystallization Factors Influencing Crystallization Applications 1....

This state of genetic integration found in temperate phages such as the lambda (λ), Mu, P1, or N15 is known as prophage, and the bacterial host harboring a prophage is called a lysogen. Although most common in bacteria, lysogeny also occurs in eukaryotes, including plants and animals. The host bacterium lives and reproduces normally in the lysogenic state. At the same time, the bacteriophage exists in a dormant state. However, the prophage is transferred to the daughter cells at each subsequent cell division....

François Jacob and Jaques Monod first proposed the operon model of gene regulation in the lac operon of E. coli. Since then, scientists have discovered the parts that control the functions of an operon. While operons occur primarily in prokarytes, they are rare in eukaryotes but do exist. Structure and Parts of an Operon Inducible vs. Repressible Operon Regulation Functions of an Operon 1. Promoter (P) The promoter is a crucial region of DNA located upstream of the structural genes within the operon....

Its reverse process is called dephosphorylation, where the added phosphate group can easily be removed again. What Happens in Phosphorylation To understand the process better, let us take the example of ATP hydrolysis. In this process, first the phosphoanhydride bond of the last phosphate group of ATP breaks due to the action of water, thus forming ADP. This process releases some energy. In the next step, the phosphate group gets added to this ADP using the released energy, thus forming ATP again....

The word ‘proton’ came from the Greek word meaning ‘first’. Ernest Rutherford used the term for the first time in 1920 to describe the nucleus of hydrogen. William Prout put discovered the existence of protons in 1815. Who Discovered Proton Where are they Located? What are Protons Made of? Characteristics Charge: Has a positive electrical charge of +1, which is equal and opposite in magnitude to the charge of an electron....

For example, when you turn a flashlight on, it shines light in a particular direction. Radiant intensity tells us how much light power is being sent out in that direction. It is crucial to understand various aspects of light sources, such as flashlights, lasers, and LEDs. Formula Units Applications I = P / Ω Where: – I is the radiant intensity in watts per steradian (W/sr) – P is the total power emitted by the light source in watts (W) – Ω denotes the solid angle in steradians (sr) By understanding radiant intensity this way, it becomes easier to grasp how light sources are analyzed and compared based on how they emit light in specific directions...

The Schottky diode is named after Walter H. Schottky, a German physicist who contributed to its development. Structure and Symbol The small rectifying junction is formed between a metal, such as platinum, gold, or aluminum, and an N-type semiconductor (typically silicon). The metal forms the anode, while the N-type semiconductor forms the cathode. The symbol used to represent a Schottky diode in circuit diagrams is similar to that of a standard diode with a modified cathode to reflect its unique characteristics....

Unlike the different types of natural selection, which focus on an organism’s survival and ability to pass on its genes, sexual selection depends on an individual’s reproductive success. Darwin’s Theory of Sexual Selection Types of Sexual Selection Examples of Sexual Selection Why Does Sexual Selection Occur The theory of sexual selection put forward by Darwin has met with both intrigue and skepticism since its inception. However, as more evidence accumulated, it gained widespread acceptance....

1. Primary or Planetary Winds 2. Secondary or Periodic Winds 3. Tertiary or Local Winds Trade Winds These are highly steady winds blowing consistently through the sub-tropical high-pressure areas (30°N and S) towards the equatorial low-pressure belt. Trade winds are thus also known as tropical easterlies. Usually, trade winds should blow from the north to south in Northern Hemisphere and south to the north in Southern Hemisphere. However, due to deflection by Coriolis Effect and Ferrel’s law, they deflect to the right side in Northern Hemisphere and to the left side in Southern Hemisphere....