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Ozone depletion is defined as the gradual thinning of the ozone layer present in the lower portion of the earth’s stratosphere. When Was It First Identified In 1974, Mario Molina and Sherwood Rowland recognized the threats of the ozone layer from compounds such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Their work received validation on May 11, 1985, when three English scientists discovered a hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica. Their discovery is commonly known as the ‘ozone hole’ since the ozone depletion is not uniform....

At the end of glycolysis, a single glucose molecule splits into two pyruvates (C3H4O3). Due to this, the link reaction occurs twice for each glucose molecule yielding a total of 2 acetyl-CoA molecules. This acetyl CoA then enters the Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle and fuels the reactions. Location: Where does Pyruvate Oxidation Occur Steps of Pyruvate Oxidation Chemical Equation In prokaryotes, it occurs in the cytoplasm. This conversion takes place in three steps: Step 1: Initially, the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase removes the carboxyl group from the 3-carbon molecule, pyruvate, releasing carbon dioxide....

Structure Function

How Does Lightning Form What Creates the Bright Light in the Clouds during Lightning The atmosphere usually acts as an insulator and doesn’t allow the lightning to flow anywhere else except within the cloud. This limits the electric charges, along with the light produced by them, within the boundaries of the cloud, illuminating the entire cloud. How Does Lightning Work to Strike the Earth When the charges developed in the cloud are strong enough, they may break the insulating property of the atmosphere and make electric current flow down to the earth that has a positive charge, which travels back to the sky as a brighter spark....

Here, the organic nitrogen in the tissues of living organisms is mineralized to form inorganic ammonia or ammonium ions. Many soil decomposers (bacteria and fungi) carry out ammonification. Bacteria carrying out ammonification are called ammonifying bacteria. Common ammonifying bacteria are Bacillus, Proteus, Clostridium, Pseudomonas and Streptomyces, and Micrococcus. How does the Process of Ammonification Occur Importance of Ammonification Chemical Equation The overall chemical equation of the process is: RNH2 + 2 H2O → NH4+ + OH– + ROH The above equation occurs in two steps: Step 1: R-NH2 + H2O → NH3 + R-OH Step 2: NH3 +H2O → NH4+ + OH– After this conversion, ammonium ions become available in plants as a nutrient or substrate for nitrification....

Examples of Applied Force Applied Force Formula: How to Find the Applied Force Applied Force vs. Normal Force Pulling a bucket of water from a wellRotating a doorknob by human handLifting an object from the floorChecking the weight of the person (This is a practice way to measure the applied force)Pushing a box on a floor Applied Force Equation Suppose an object of mass m is pushed through a distance such that its acceleration is a....

Cytolysis, also known as osmotic lysis, is defined as the breakdown or destruction of cells due to excessive influx of water into the cell. What Causes It Types of Cytolysis Importance How to Prevent Cytolysis Cells generally have a higher salt and ion concentration than their outside environment. Therefore, when placed in pure water or a hypotonic solution (with lower salt concentration), water begins flowing from the extracellular medium into the cell, crossing the plasma membrane....

The primary mechanism of DNA replication is similar across all organisms. Here, we will focus on DNA replication as it takes place in the bacterium E. coli. However, the procedure is the same in humans and other eukaryotes. Why is DNA Replication such an Important Process Role of DNA Polymerase in DNA Replication When and Where does DNA Replication Occur How is DNA Replicated Replication in Eukaryotes Is DNA Replication Semi-conservative Some key features of DNA polymerase are:...

Examples of Fluid Friction Factors Affecting Fluid Friction Laws of Fluid Friction A person swimming in the waterA plane flying through the airThe flow of honey when it is spread over breadThe flow of water when it is sucked through a strawThe motion of coffee when it is stirredA ship sailing on the water Viscosity: Fluids with high viscosity offer more resistance than the ones with low viscosityTemperature: As the temperature increases, the viscosity of liquids decreases, whereas the viscosity of gases increases....

Structure What do Guard Cells Do Compared to the rest of the leaf, the cuticle of guard cells is more permeable to water vapor. Cuticle permeability also depends on its chemical composition. In young and developing guard cells, cellulose and pectin are deposited into the plasmodesmata, forming a thin cytoplasm layer. However, they disappear in a mature guard cell. The cellulose microfibrils are oriented radially in the cell walls. Subsidiary cells, also known as accessory cells, are epidermal cells surrounding each guard cell....

Whether a solution is hypertonic or not is measured by comparing the concentration of a solution with another, generally cell sap. Seawater, sugar syrup, corn syrup are some common examples of hypertonic solutions. What it Does in a Cell What Happens to a Cell When Placed in a Hypertonic Solution Examples of Hypertonic Solution Hypertonic vs. Hypotonic Solution Thus, an equal osmotic pressure exists in both the cell and its surroundings....

Although not the most common form of expression, polygenic traits such as height, weight, eye color, and skin color in plants, animals, and humans display incomplete dominance. After the discovery of the laws of inheritance by Gregor Mendel, the term incomplete dominance was proposed by the German botanist Carl Correns while studying four o’clock flowers. Mechanism of Incomplete Dominance Other Examples of Incomplete Dominance Keeping Mendel’s work under consideration, the mechanism of incomplete dominance can be easily understood using Carl Correns’s experiment on o’clock (Snapdragon) plants....

The stem is the connecting medium between the roots, the leaves, and the flowers, whose primary function is to provide mechanical support to the plant. The main woody stem of a plant is called the ‘trunk’. What Are the Different Parts of a Stem 1) Nodes 2) Internodes 3) Terminal or Apical Bud 4) Lateral Bud or Axillary Bud 6) Pedicel 7) Leaves 8) Flowers Functions Helping the plant to form buds, leaves, and branching twigs Helping plants to heal from injury Providing additional structural support to the plant Reproducing new plant parts or even a complete plant by the process of stem cutting, like rose, salvia, dahlia, boxwood, etc....

Where is it Located The RER is continuous with the nuclear membrane, which envelopes the cell nucleus. Being a part of the endomembrane system, it also lies near the Golgi apparatus. Moreover, the rough endoplasmic reticulum arises near the nucleus and stretches across the cytoplasm, up to the Golgi body. Structure Functions Their unit membranes have ribosomes studded on their outer surface, which make them the ‘rough’ ER. The ribosomes remain attached with the help of a group of proteins called ribophorins....

Examples How does Sound Energy Work How does Sound Wave Transfer Energy to Your Ears How is Sound Energy Measured Conversion of Sound Energy Uses Car honkingAirplane taking offPolice whistlingDog barkingWind howlingBaby crying Sound requires a medium to propagate. It can travel through air, water, wood, glass, or metal. Unlike light, sound cannot propagate in a vacuum since there are no particles to transmit the wave. Sound wave frequency is measured in the unit of Hertz or Hz....

The term ‘acid rain’ was used for the first time by Robert Angus Smith in 1852 while examining rainwater reaction from the U.K. and Scotland’s industrial sites. Where does Acid Rain Occur? What Causes Acid Rain and How is it Formed How does Acid Rain Affect the Environment? Solutions to Problems of Acid Rain Advantages of Acid Rain The process starts when SO2 and NOX are emitted into the atmosphere, undergo photooxidation in the presence of sunlight and oxygen, and react with water and other components present in the atmosphere....

Angular velocity is also known as rotational velocity. It is a vector quantity, which means it has both magnitude and direction. Types of Angular Velocity Formula Average and Instantaneous Velocity Relation Between Linear and Angular Velocity Angular Velocity of the Earth Example Problems Orbital angular velocity refers to how fast an object revolves around a fixed point, typically taken as the origin. Therefore, it is the time rate of change of its angular displacement relative to the origin....

According to the taxonomic division, bryophytes are divided into three main groups: mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. There are around 20,000 species of Bryophytes. Braun first suggested the term ‘Bryophyta’ – a group of non-flowering land plants in 1864. Wilhelm Schimper first classified bryophytes in 1879. Characteristics of Bryophytes Types of Bryophytes Importance of Bryophytes Structure Small Stature: Bryophytes are typically short in length, measuring one to two centimeters. They do not have the structural ability to grow upwards....

However, cell division is different in single-celled prokaryotes and multicellular eukaryotes. Cell Divisions in Eukaryotes Cell Division in Prokaryotes Why is Cell Division Important 1. Mitosis Here, the daughter cells receive the exact copies of the parent cell chromosomes in the diploid form. It is a part of the cell cycle. A eukaryotic cell cycle consists of two main phases: 1) interphase and 2) mitotic (M) phase and an alternative G0-phase....

Although random, genetic drift can have long-lasting effects on the genetic makeup of a population. The new population can be genetically distinct from the original group, which led to the hypothesis that genetic drift may form a new species. However, it does not bring adaptation to a population. Types of Genetic Drift Effects of Genetic Drift Gene Flow vs. Genetic Drift 1. Bottleneck Effect It occurs when a population undergoes a drastic reduction in size for at least one generation due to a catastrophic event like natural disasters (earthquakes, floods, and fires) or disease outbreak....