Posts

History Raman Spectrometer Raman Spectrum and Raman Shift Basics Raman Spectroscopy Video Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Spectroscopy (CARS) Tip-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (TERS) Applications How Does Raman Spectroscopy Work – The Raman Effect The process involves the inelastic scattering of a beam of monochromatic light by a sample material. Usually, a laser is used for generating this light that interacts with vibrating molecules, phonons or other stimulations in the system....

These enzymes are widely found in bacteria and archaea, providing them with defense against invading bacteriophages. Inside a prokaryotic cell, the restriction enzymes selectively cut specific viral DNA sequences, a process known as restriction digestion. However, the host protects its DNA from such cleavage through methylation. Werner Arber, Hamilton O. Smith, and Daniel Nathans discovered and characterized them in the late 1960s and early 1970s. A restriction enzyme is named after the genus, species, and strain of bacteria that produced it....

Location Structure and Characteristics Functions: What Does the Ribosome Do Where are Ribosomes Made They are made and packaged in the nucleolus, a small dense region within the nucleus, by a process called ribosome biogenesis. Abundance The number of ribosomes in a cell depends on cellular activity. On average, in a mammalian cell, there can be about 10 million ribosomes. In the bacterium Escherichia coli, it accounts to almost 15,000, constituting as much as one-quarter of the cell’s total mass....

Who Discovered Buoyancy Greek mathematician Archimedes, around 250 BC, discovered the law of buoyancy, which is today known as Archimedes’ principle. Buoyancy and Archimedes Principle Buoyant Force: How Does Buoyancy Work Types of Buoyancy Buoyancy Examples Buoyant Force Equation: Law of Buoyancy Applications of Buoyancy 1. Positive Buoyancy When the weight of the fluid displaced by the object is more than the object’s weight, then the phenomenon is known as positive buoyancy....

[v_{T} = \sqrt{\frac{2mg}{C\rho_{air} A}} ] Let us calculate the terminal velocity of a cat using the following values. m = 5 kg ρair = 1.29 kg/m3 C = 1.1 A = 0.1 m2 g = 9.81 m/s2 Plugging them in, we get Thus, a cat has a terminal velocity of approximately 60 mph. A cat can sense when she is accelerating, and her instincts kick in. She will rotate and let herself to a position to brace for landing....

The most widely accepted model of the cell membrane was given by S.J. Singer and Garth L. Nicolson in 1972, popularly known as the fluid mosaic model. Described below are the three major parts along with their detailed make up: 1. Lipids It is one of the main components of the cell membrane that makes up the cell’s structural framework. Membrane lipids are of the following types: 2. Proteins It is the second major part of the cell membrane....

Generally, a gradient is how much something changes when that something moves from one region to another. Therefore, concentration gradient refers to how much the concentration changes when something moves from one region to another. In biology, concentration gradient refers to the gradual change in a solute’s concentration in a solution as a function of the distance the molecules traverse. The concentration gradient is important because it enables us to understand how particles move in random motion in a solution....

Examples Characteristics and Properties Equations Problems and Solutions Total kinetic energy before and after the collision remains unchangedTotal momentum before and after the collision remains unchangedEnergy is not dissipated through heat or frictionColliding objects do not deform Applying the law of conservation of momentum, Applying the law of conservation of kinetic energy, As there are two equations and two unknowns, we use the method of simultaneous equations to solve for vAf and vBf....

Electrical energy can be stored in small quantities using fuel cells, batteries, capacitors, or magnetic fields. Charges build up in a capacitor, which then stores electrical energy. Thus, electrical energy is also a type of potential energy. Source of Electrical Energy Electrical Energy Formula and Unit Examples of Electrical Energy Conversion of Other Energy Forms into Electrical Energy Electrical cables transport electricity from one place to another through conduction. Conductors made from metal are used for this purpose....

It is called ‘endoplasmic,’ as it is more concentrated in the inner side of the cytoplasm (endoplasm) than the outer side (ectoplasm). On the other hand, it is referred to as ‘reticulum’ due to its reticulate or network-like appearance. This kind of appearance can be observed under a light microscope. ER is absent in eggs, embryonic cells, mature RBC, and bacteria. Who Discovered Endoplasmic Reticulum In 1945, Porter and Thompson discovered Endoplasmic Reticulum....

Temperature – Higher temperature increases the random motion of molecules and thus higher is the rate of diffusionConcentration – Higher the concentration gradient between the regions undergoing diffusion, more is the rate of diffusionDistance – The rate of diffusion is faster in smaller distancesSize of the molecules – Smaller the size of the molecule, faster is the rate of diffusion and vice versa. Mediated by Channel Proteins – Span the membrane and create a channel through them to transport molecules or ions in and out of the cell Mediated by Carrier Proteins – Carry the molecules or ions across the membrane by changing their shape after binding

Clouds form when: They form at a wide range of altitudes. Some are found very close to the ground, while others are high in the atmosphere. What Causes a Cloud to Form Other Ways of Forming Clouds However, the entire process occurs in a step-by-step manner: Step 1: Several reasons cause the air to rise (lifting), such as the heat of the Sun, the presence of hills and mountains, weather fronts, convergence, and air turbulence....

What are the Different Parts of a Plant 2. Stems 3. Leaves 4. Flowers 5. Fruits A typical diagram of a plant body consists of three parts: 1) roots, 2) stems, and 3) leaves, each having specialized functions. Apart from these basic parts, a flowering plant also contains 4) flowers and 5) fruits. The root system covers the underground parts of a plant, which include the roots, tubers, and rhizomes, whereas the shoot system consists of parts found above the ground, such as leaves, stems, flowers, and fruits....

Now, let us discuss its detailed structure: Structure Function Difference between Nucleoplasm and Cytoplasm Chemical composition It is mainly made up of water, nuclear proteins, and other inorganic and organic substances such as nucleic acids, proteins, enzymes, and minerals. The soluble, fluid portion of the nucleoplasm is called the nucleosol or nuclear hyaloplasm. The nucleoplasm contains two types of nuclear proteins, histone or basic proteins and non-histone or acidic proteins....

What are Quarks How were Quarks Discovered Types and Charges of Quarks in an Atom Later, Murray Gell-Mann named these unusual particles quarks’ influenced by the James Joyce novel ‘Finnegans Wake’. Each proton and neutron contain three quarks; however, they are of two types. Each up quark contains a charge of +2/3. In contrast, each down quark has a charge of -1/3. The sum of the quark charges making up a nuclear particle gives its electrical charge....

Characteristics A simple leaf shows the following characteristics: Directly attached to a twig by its stem or the petiole. Lateral buds are present at the base of the petiole.Margins or edges can be smooth, jagged, lobed, or parted. However, the partings never reach the midrib. Examples Leaves of maple, oaks, banana, guava, mango, black cherry, black gum, and sweet gum are examples of simple leaves.

Location: Where is the Stigma Located on a Flower Structure Shape Function: What Does the Stigma Do in a Flower First, the stigma captures the pollen. Next, as the pollens stick to it, the dry pollen grains get rehydrated or germinated. The stigma then transmits hormonal signals to the pollen grains directing them to elongate into the pistil, forming a pollen tube. Summarizing the functions: Receives pollen grainsGerminates pollen grainsHelps in the formation of the pollen tube....

They are present in all plant and fungal cells but only in a few protist, animal, and bacterial cells. The size and shape of vacuoles vary from one to another, being the largest in plants. They mainly act as storage bins to the cell. In 1676, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, discovered vacuoles after his invention of microscope. In 1776, Spallanzani first observed star-shaped structures in protozoa. Later in 1841, Dujardin named these organelles as vacuoles....

Formula Gravitational Acceleration Value Factors Affecting Acceleration due to Gravity Where Fg: Gravitational force M: Mass of the Earth m: Mass of the object R: Radius of the Earth G: Universal gravitational constant From Newton’s second law, the force on an object due to Earth’s gravitation is Comparing the above two equations: Units of g SI unit: meters per second squared or m/s2cgs unit: centimeters per second squared or cm/s2Imperial unit: feet per second squared or ft/s2...

The term ‘atom’ was derived from the Greek word ‘atomos’, meaning ‘indivisible’. The ancient Greek and Indian philosophers were the first to think atom as the basic unit of all matter in the universe. In the early 19th century, scientists started understanding the atom’s structure with their inner parts in more detail. In 1926, Erwin Schrodinger proposed the current atomic model that we still use today. There are many different atoms, each having its name, size, mass, and number of subatomic particles....