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Rayleigh scattering is named after British mathematician and physicist Lord Rayleigh, who first described this phenomenon in a paper in 1871. What causes Rayleigh Scattering Why is the Sky Blue Formula Limitations During Rayleigh scattering, the shorter wavelengths of light, such as blue and violet, are scattered more by the molecules and particles compared to longer wavelengths, such as red and orange. The reason is that the shorter wavelengths are closer in size to the molecular and particle dimensions....

The history of Snell’s Law goes back to 1621 when Dutch astronomer and mathematician Willebrord Snell discovered the laws of refraction. Snell’s Law is the basis of optical technology. Optical components and systems are designed using Snell’s Law and the laws of reflection. An essential application of Snell’s Law is fiber optics. Fiber optic cables are used in telecommunications, especially data transmission in high-speed servers.

Types and Examples of Torque Torque Formula Torque and Rotational Kinematics Applications Solved Problems A static torque does not produce angular acceleration. For example, pushing a closed door is a static torque. You are applying a force on the door, yet it does not rotate about its hinges (axis) because it is closed. Another example is pedaling a cycle at a constant speed. A dynamic torque produces angular acceleration. For example, the drive shaft of a racing car produces angular acceleration allowing the race car to drive on its track....

History of Archimedes’ Principle The history of this principle goes back to 3rd century BC when it was discovered by Archimedes of Syracuse, who was a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer. This discovery is often associated with the term “Eureka moment.” According to the popular legend, Archimedes was given the job of finding out whether a crown made for a king was either solid gold or fake gold. One day he was taking a bath and noticed how the water level rose as he immersed his body....

It is commonly found in plants and animals having more than one pigment color. For example, if we cross a red and white flower with a codominant pattern, the offspring flower will have red and white patches. This type of relationship between alleles is called codominance. How Does Codominance Work Other Examples of Codominance Codominance vs. Incomplete Dominance Self-pollination of the codominant F1 plants produces offspring with phenotype 1 red: 2 red/white: 1 white....

Giulio Bizzozero, an Italian pathologist, first discovered it. Josef Schaffer coined the term ‘desmosome’ in 1920. Location of Desmosomes in a Cell Structure Functions of Desmosomes Clinical Significances of Desmosomes Desmosomes have a highly organized, electron-dense structure. They are less than one μm in diameter and consist of three parts. What are Desmosomes Made of They are composed of desmosome-intermediate filament complexes (DIFC), a network of cadherin proteins, linker proteins, and keratin intermediate filaments....

The history of light polarization began with the Danish physicist, physician, and mathematician, Erasmus Bartholinus, who, in 1669, discovered the phenomenon of double refraction of calc-spar. Examples of Polarization of Light The light reflected from the water surface forms glare making it difficult to see through.The view of the surroundings through polaroid sunglasses. Linear Polarization In linear polarization, the electric field of light is restricted to a single plane along the direction of propagation....

In 1958, Francis Crick proposed a theory called central dogma to describe the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein. According to this framework, protein is formed from RNA via translation, which in turn, is formed from DNA through transcription. DNA → RNA → Protein i. DNA → RNA (Transcription) ii. RNA → Protein (Translation) Where and When does Protein Synthesis Take Place Process: How does it Work What Happens Next Why is Protein Synthesis Important Why is it Different in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes However, in eukaryotes, the ribosomes remain scattered in the cytoplasm and are also attached to the Endoplasmic reticulum (RER)....

It was predicted that the first living organism to evolve on Earth was a marine chemoheterotrophic bacteria. Examples of Chemoheterotrophs Types of Chemoheterotrophs Functions of Chemoheterotrophs 1. Chemolithoheterotrophs They are organisms that use inorganic substances as their source of carbon. Chemolithoheterotrophs are mostly bacteria found in extreme environments like hydrothermal vents. They obtain their carbon source by feeding on other bacteria or dead matter on the sea floors. 2. Chemoorganoheterotrophs They are organisms that use organic substances as their source of carbon....

Adding a dopant increases electrical conductivity. The choice of dopant is a critical factor in semiconductor manufacturing, influencing the performance and applications of electronic devices. Types of Extrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Band Diagram Uses and Applications Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Semiconductors 1. N-type An N-type semiconductor is created by adding impurity atoms that have more electrons than the semiconductor material itself. Group V elements such as phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), and antimony (Sb) have five valence electrons (pentavalent) and are commonly used as dopants....

Unlike land animals, including humans that use lungs to take in oxygen directly from the air, fishes use a specialized organ to obtain oxygen dissolved in water. What Do Fish Use for Breathing How do They Breathe Underwater Do Fish Breathe Air The breathing process in fish requires large volumes of water to pass through their bodies to get enough oxygen. Gills increase the surface area for better absorption of gases, thus aiding in gas exchange....

How Does an Inclined Plane Work Mechanical Advantage of Inclined Plane Examples of Inclined Plane Applications and Uses of Inclined Plane Where, L: Length of the inclined plane h: Maximum height of the inclined plane According to the equation, the longer the plane, the easier moving an object upward. Hence, an inclined plane reduces the effort force by increasing the distance through which the force is applied. The above equation ignores the friction between the object and the inclined plane....

What are the Three Main Reservoirs of Oxygen in Nature The Three Steps of the Oxygen Cycle Importance of the Oxygen Cycle in Nature How Do Humans Affect the Oxygen Cycle Photolysis – Ultraviolet radiation of the sun breaks down atmospheric water and nitrous oxidePhotosynthesis – Plants make food and release oxygen as a byproduct Weathering – Oxygen-containing minerals in rocks gradually breaks down 2) Utilizing the Free Oxygen Involves the following processes: Respiration – Animals take in oxygen from the atmosphere and use it to break down carbohydrates Decomposition – Invertebrates, including fungi, bacteria, and some insects decay the dead organic matter of plants and animals remains Combustion – Organic materials, including fossil fuels, plastics, and wood, are burned in the presence of oxygenCorrosion – Metals like iron or alloy rust when they are exposed to moisture and oxygen for an extended period, new compounds of oxides are formed by the combination of oxygen with the metal...

Potential Energy vs. Internuclear Distance Curve The curve above shows the energy profile between the two atoms. The vertical axis shows the potential energy, and the horizontal is the internuclear distance, i.e., the separation between the nuclei of the two atoms. The attractive and repulsive forces balance each other where the potential energy is minimum. The internuclear distance at this minimum point is called the equilibrium bond length. Both the equilibrium bond length and the bond energy are depicted in the image....

The importance of velocity is that it can give you an estimated time to go from one point to another. Suppose you are traveling from place A to place B. Velocity tells you how long it will take to arrive at your destination. How to Calculate Velocity Examples Average and Instantaneous Velocity Speed vs. Velocity Velocity vs. Time Graph Solved Problems Velocity can be calculated by measuring the object’s displacement over the time taken to displace it....

Angular displacement is analogous to linear displacement. However, during linear displacement, the object moves in a linear path. On the other hand, during angular displacement, the object moves in a circular path. Angular Displacement Equation Example Problems Δθ = θf – θi Where Δθ: Angular displacement θf: Final position of the object θi: Initial position of the object Symbol: Δθ (delta theta) or θ Unit: Degree or radian (1 radian = 57....

It occurs mainly due to a change in the habitat or due to scarcity of resources. Individuals with extreme traits that mate successfully with their partners can survive and pass on their genes. Such organisms are found on the two ends of the distribution curve. Disruptive selection often leads to speciation, selecting the organisms with extreme phenotypes and removing the intermediate ones. Thus, it is also known as diversifying selection as it drives evolution....

Consider a spring as an example. When it is compressed or extended, the spring stores elastic potential energy. When released, the spring oscillates, and the potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. Types of Energy Transformation Energy Transformation Examples Mechanical Energy (including kinetic energy and potential energy)Chemical EnergyElectrical EnergyThermal Energy or Heat EnergySound EnergyLight Energy or Radiant EnergyNuclear EnergySolar Energy An electric fan, blender, and washing machine consist of an electric motor that converts electrical energy into kinetic energyElectric iron, toaster, and stove convert electrical energy into thermal energyAn electric generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energyA television converts electrical energy into sound energy and light energyA light bulb converts electrical energy into thermal energy and light energyA hairdryer converts electrical energy into thermal energy and sound energyThe human body digests food and converts chemical energy into mechanical energy enabling muscles to perform workA campfire burns wood and converts chemical energy into thermal energy and light energyAutomobiles use fuel and convert chemical energy into mechanical energyThe sun transforms nuclear energy into light energy and thermal energyLightning converts electrical energy into light energy, heat energy, and sound energyRubbing hands together converts kinetic energy into thermal energyFlashlight converts electrical energy into light energyAn object speeds up when it falls....

This phenomenon demonstrates how electric and magnetic fields can influence the movement of charged particles in a material. By studying the Hall effect, scientists can learn important information about the charge carriers, such as electrons, within the material. This effect was discovered by American Physicist Edwin Hall in 1879. Principle Equation Hall Coefficient Applications Example Problems This sideways push is key to understanding the Hall Effect. Imagine electrons moving through a conductor because of an electric field that drives them forward....

T4 bacteriophage is an example of a lytic phage infecting the bacterium E. coli found in the human intestinal tract. Lytic phages are useful for phage therapy. Steps of the Lytic Cycle 1. Adsorption It is the first phase of the lytic cycle, which involves the attachment of the bacteriophage to the bacterial cell surface. The phage’s tail fibers and other surface proteins recognize and bind to particular receptors on the bacterial cell wall....