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German physicists Walther Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld discovered this phenomenon in 1933, and it is considered one of the defining characteristics of superconductivity. How Does it Work Theoretical Explanation Application According to the London equations, the magnetic field inside a superconductor decreases rapidly from the surface over a specific distance called the London penetration depth. This distance is very small, typically in the range of tens to hundreds of nanometers (10 – 100 nm)....

Formula Change in Momentum Momentum, Force, and Impulse Application Example Problems Momentum = mass x velocity p = mˑv Where p is the momentum m is the mass v is the velocity In vectorial notation The momentum along the positive axis direction is considered positive, while the momentum along the negative axis direction is considered negative. Unit & DimensionsThe SI unit for momentum is kgˑm/s. The cgs unit is gˑcm/s. Its dimensional formula is [M1 L1 T-1]....

Examples of Natural Resources How Do We Use Natural Resources Types of Natural Resources Why are Natural Resources Important Depletion of Natural Resources However, items such as plastic goods, metal bodies, fabrics, and concrete are not natural resources but are obtained from them. Based on Their Availability Natural resources are of two types, based on their availability. Renewable Resources Renewable resources are resources that are renewed during our lifetime. They are available to us in abundance....

The nucleosome is thus best described as the eukaryotic DNA associated with its histone proteins. Nucleosome Structure Nucleosome Assembly: How is DNA Packaged in a Eukaryotic Cell Nucleosome Functions Nucleosome vs. Chromatin Nucleosome vs. Histone Thus, DNA packaging in eukaryotes is achieved in three levels: First Level – Nucleosome, Second Level – Solenoid Fiber, Third Level – Chromatids, and Chromosome. 2. A Molecular Librarian Nucleosomes are essential for protecting the delicate inner strands of DNA from any physical damage and thus are like a librarian to the cell....

Structure and Characteristics of a Plant Cell Different Parts of a Plant Cell Different Types of Plant Cell 1) Cell Wall It is the outermost, protective layer of a plant cell having a thickness of 20-80 nm. Cell walls are made up of carbohydrates such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin and a complex organic polymer called lignin. Functions Providing mechanical strength, support, and rigidity to the cell Providing shape to the plant Allowing selective entry of small molecules inside the cell while preventing large molecules Protecting the delicate inner organelles from outer shock Providing turgidity to plants that allows movement of water and minerals throughout the plant body...

Plate Tectonic Theory What are Tectonic Plates Made of What Causes Tectonic Plates to Move and Why Types of Tectonic Plate Boundaries Tectonic Plates Map: Where are they Located Evidence of Plate Tectonics Plate Tectonics and the Ring of Fire What does the Theory of Plate Tectonics State The theory of plate tectonics states that the Earth’s solid outer crust, the lithosphere, is divided into plates that move over the semi-liquid upper portion of the mantle, the asthenosphere....

Source: Britannica.com Examples of Refraction Ray Diagram For Refraction Laws of Refraction Refractive Indices of Common Materials Applications of Refraction

Rolling Friction Examples Laws of Rolling Friction Rolling Friction Equation Rolling Without Slipping Advantages of Rolling Friction When a soccer ball is kicked, it stops after rolling on the ground.When a golf ball is hit, it stops on the green after rolling.A car will come to a stop after rolling downhill and reaching a flat road.A skateboard moving on wheels will come to a stop after some time.A roller coaster slows down its ride towards the end due to a flat strip of track....

The primary function of SR is to store and release calcium ions (Ca2+) during muscle contraction and relaxation. Structure of Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Functions of Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Role of Sarcoplasmic Reticulum in Rigor Mortis Role of Sarcoplasmic Reticulum in Heart Diseases Sarcoplasmic Reticulum vs. Endoplasmic Reticulum L-SR is found around each sarcomere’s anisotropic (A) and isotropic (I) bands. A and I bands are bisected by the M band and the Z disk, respectively, and the portion of the myofibril between two Z disks is the sarcomere....

Xylem is the dead, permanent tissue that carries water and minerals from roots to all other parts of the plant. The term ‘xylem’ is derived from the Greek word ‘xylon’, meaning wood. Phloem, on the other hand, is the living, permanent tissue that carries food and other organic nutrients from leaves to all other parts of the plant. The word ‘phloem’ is obtained from the Greek word ‘phloios’, meaning ‘bark’....

Examples of Organisms That Use the Method Few unicellular organisms such as bacteria, fungi (e.g., yeast), and protozoa, a number of metazoan animals including certain cnidarian species (e.g., Hydra) and various plants. Budding in Other Organisms In Yeasts By repeating this process, budding produces what appear to be a chain of yeast cells under a microscope. At the same time, the parent cell may also start producing a new bud causing it to appear branched....

Membrane-bound organelles are essential as they allow proper segregation for their functioning in eukaryotic cells. All organelles in a cell are found embedded in a fluid-like material called cytoplasm. It is made of water, inorganic, and organic substances. In contrast to eukaryotes, prokaryotic cells like bacteria lack membrane-bound organelles. The organelles found in a generalized eukaryotic cell (plant and animals) are listed below: 1. Cell Membrane 2. Vacuole 3. Nucleus 4....

Along Australia’s northeastern coast, the Great Barrier Reef is the largest coral reef on Earth. It is incredibly diverse, with over 3,000 species of coral and other marine species. Trophic Levels in the Coral Reef Food Web Producers: They form the basis for the entire food web. These are typically photosynthetic organisms that convert sunlight into energy through photosynthesis. The primary producers of coral reefs are mainly seaweed, seagrass, and phytoplankton....

Within a eukaryotic cell (plant and animal), they are found inside the nucleus, distributed among its chromosomes. Chromosomes consist of thousands of short DNA segments called genes. In contrast, DNA is located within a central dense area called the nucleoid in a prokaryotic cell like bacteria. Since DNA reside inside the cell, it is too small to be seen with the naked eye. They are visible only under an electron microscope....

The endosymbiotic theory explains that when one organism, typically a microbe, takes up residence within the cell of another organism, over time, they form a close relationship that can be advantageous for both partners. The larger host cell provides a protected environment and essential nutrients. At the same time, the internalized microbe contributes its specialized functions, often becoming an organelle within the host cell. The theory was conceptualized first by Konstantin Mereschkowsk in 1905 and then supported with evidence by Lynn Margulis in 1967....

In simpler terms, luminous intensity measures how bright a light appears to the human eye in a particular direction. This quantity is essential for technical and scientific purposes. It significantly impacts our daily lives, influencing how we perceive and interact with our environment. Formula Unit Relationship with Other Photometric Quantities Devices Used for Measuring Luminous Intensity Applications Iv = Ie x Km The luminous efficacy adjusts the radiant intensity to reflect how the human eye perceives light, giving us a measure of brightness aligned with human perception....

What Does a Magnetic Field Look Like How to Create Magnetic Field Magnetic Flux vs. Magnetic Field Field Lines in a Bar Magnet A bar magnet is the simplest form of a magnet that is rectangular. It has two poles, called the north pole and the south pole. The magnetic field lines come out of the north pole and terminate into the south pole. Inside the magnet, they travel from south to north pole....

Equation Derivation Where, τ: Torque I: Moment of inertia α: Angular acceleration The above equation is critical in rotational kinematics and tells us how torque, moment of inertia, and angular acceleration are related. The magnitude of linear acceleration in the direction of the force is The following equation relates the object’s tangential acceleration α to the linear acceleration. Substituting this into Newton’s second law, we obtain Multiplying both sides by r The left-hand side of the above equation is the torque τ, where r is the lever arm and F is the force perpendicular to r....

All trees have some basic environmental value and provide us with many benefits, such as producing oxygen, purifying the atmosphere, conserving water, preventing soil erosion, giving habitat to a wide variety of insects, birds, and animals. In short, trees help to maintain the balance of nature. What are the Different Parts of a Tree 1) Roots 2) Crown 3) Trunk or Bole A mature tree has three basic parts: 1) roots, 2) crown, and 3) trunk or bole....

In the ecological pyramid shown, the hawk is the Quaternary Consumer. Quaternary Consumer in the Food Chain Quaternary Consumer in the Food Web Why are Quaternary Consumers So Rare Examples of Quaternary Consumers In this terrestrial food chain, the hawk is the quaternary consumer that feeds on snakes, the tertiary consumer. It also happens to be the apex predator of the food chain. Similarly, in the ocean food chain, large sharks are the quaternary consumers that feed on smaller sharks, the tertiary producer....