Band theory explains how electrons are distributed across different energy levels, or bands, within a solid. These energy bands form because of the interactions between many atoms in a crystal lattice. The way electrons behave within these bands determines if a material can conduct electricity. Energy Band Diagram Valence Band Conduction Band Energy Band Gap At absolute zero temperature, the valence band is the highest energy level that is completely filled with electrons....

Types of BJT Structure of BJT Regions of Operation in BJT BJT Configuration The two types and their symbols are shown in the image below. Emitter The emitter is heavily doped with excess electrons or holes. This heavy doping allows for efficient injection or emission of charge carriers into the base region. Base The base is adjacent to the emitter and is lightly doped compared to the former. It is usually very narrow to facilitate the diffusion of charge carriers injected from the emitter to the collector....

A sine wave is the simplest of all waveforms and contains only a single fundamental frequency. Almost all musical sounds have waves that are noticeably more complex than a sine wave. It is the addition of harmonics and overtones to a wave that makes it possible to distinguish between different sounds and instruments. Vibrating strings, open cylindrical air columns, and conical air columns will vibrate at all harmonics of the fundamental....

Glycogenolysis is the biochemical pathway of the breakdown of glycogen into a simple sugar, like glucose. It occurs when our body needs glucose for instant energy. This process is stopped when excess glucose is in the bloodstream. In this biochemical pathway, glycogen breaks down into glucose-1-phosphate and glucose. The opposite of glycogenolysis is glycogenesis, which is glycogen formation from glucose molecules. Where Does Glycogenolysis Occur Pathway of Glycogenolysis Functions of Glycogenolysis Compare and Contrast Glycogenolysis with Gluconeogenesis, Glycogenesis, and Glycolysis In the liver cells (hepatocytes), when blood glucose levels are low during starvation, hormones activate enzymes that stimulate the breakdown of glycogen into glucose released into the bloodstream....

Shown below is the water molecule (H2O). All objects that we see around us are made of molecules. From living objects such as a plant or an animal, including humans, inanimate objects like a chair, table, wall, door, windows, books, computer, and mobile phones are all made of molecules. Examples Oxygen (O2), ozone (O3), methane (CH4), sodium chloride (NaCl), and glucose (C6H12O6) are some other common examples of molecules....

In unicellular organisms such as bacteria, the process is relatively simple as it is done with the help of cell membranes through diffusion. In contrast, the body of a multicellular organism does not exist in isolation. They constantly interact and exchange water and nutrients with the environment and excrete sweat, urine, and faces. Osmoregulation is thus vital for the normal functioning of all single-celled or multi-celled organisms on Earth. Types of Osmoregulation Why is Osmoregulation Important 1....

It is widely used nowadays to produce disease-free plants, including ornamental plants, food plants, and orchids, rapidly on a large scale and with desirable qualities. The process is known as micropropagation, when tissue culture is used to develop identical plants from a single parent. History of Plant Tissue Culture Principles of Plant Tissue Culture Procedure of Plant Tissue Culture Types of Plant Tissue Culture Applications of Plant Tissue Culture Embryo Culture In embryo culture, the embryo of a plant seed is first isolated and then cultivated under in-vitro conditions....

It occurs through two different processes – 2) Oxidation of Inorganic Sulfur to Sulfate (SO42−) It involves two steps – 3) Assimilative Reduction of Sulfate to Sulfide (S2−) Also known as sulfur reduction, it is performed by plants, fungi and various microorganisms such as Desulfovibrio and Desulfobulbus species in two steps – 4) Incorporation of Sulfide into Organic Compounds The sulfide assimilated is converted into an organic form which the animals consume and fix through the foods they eat....

The concept of a unit cell is essential because it allows scientists to analyze the arrangement of atoms within crystals. By studying the properties and interactions within these repeating units, researchers can gain valuable insights into the structure and behavior of crystalline solids. Lattice Points Types of Unit Cell Physical Properties of Unit Cell The arrangement of these points defines the overall structure of the crystal. The unit cell contains one or more lattice points, as shown in the image below....

How Much Does Water Expand When It Freezes? Why? – The Cause behind the Effect How Does Water Expand When It Freezes? Is Water The Only Substance That Expands When It Freezes? Video The Molecular Standpoint The water molecule, consisting of 2 atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen, forms a Mickey Mouse head-like structure such that the ears are the hydrogen atoms and the oxygen atom represents the head. The oxygen atom side of the molecule is slightly negative, while the hydrogen atoms side has a slightly positive charge....

Structure Function: What does Adenosine Diphosphate do How does Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) become Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) This adenine and ribose sugar combine to form a nucleoside, adenosine. The adenosine gets attached to two phosphate groups. Thus, ADP as a whole is a nucleoside phosphate. The nucleoside acts as a pentose sugar backbone with a purine base adenine attached to it at the 1′ carbon. However, the phosphate groups are bonded in series to the 5′ carbon of the pentose sugar....

The genetic count of an organism is determined in terms of chromosome pairs; for example, humans have 46 chromosomes (arranged in 23 pairs). How are Chromosome and Chromatid Related to Each Other What is the Difference between a Chromosome and a Chromatid Similarities Conclusion

For each electron, there is a ground state and an excited state. Here, we will discuss the ground state electron configuration, which is about the electron configuration of an atom at the lowest possible energy level. The other state, the excited state, means that the valence electron has moved from its ground state orbital to another higher energy orbital. Based on the electronic configuration, the chemical reactivity of substances can be predicted, what kind of reaction is likely to happen and how strong the reaction will be....

According to Newton’s second law, an object at rest starts to move when a force acts on it. This force causes the object to accelerate in the same direction as the force. The acceleration depends upon two factors – i. mass and ii. force. Force is one of the fundamental properties of any physical system. The significance of Newton’s second law is that it explains how to calculate the force....

The nuclear force is spin-dependent. However, it is charge-independent, which means that the forces between two protons, two neutrons, and a proton and a neutron are approximately the same when the electromagnetic forces are ignored. Properties of Nuclear Force Types: Strong and Weak Nuclear Forces Applications of Nuclear Force Classified into strong nuclear force and weak nuclear forceOccurs between nucleons, like protons and neutronsShort-range and finite (of the order of proton dimension)Strong nuclear force that is powerful than the electric force by 137 timesIt does not affect the physical and chemical properties of a substanceDetected through nuclear reactions and radioactivityDependent on the spin of the particles...

Since this entire process requires the cell’s metabolic energy in the form of ATP, it is considered an example of active transport. In the process, the pump helps stabilize membrane potential and is also necessary for creating conditions necessary for firing action potentials. Danish scientist Jens Christian Skou discovered the Sodium–Potassium pump in 1957. Later in 1997, he was awarded Nobel Prize for the same. Where is it Located Structure How does the Sodium-Potassium Pump Work with Steps Functions: Why is it Important α subunit: It is the bigger subunit with a molecular weight of around 100,000 Dalton....

What are the Different Types of Desert Biome 1. Subtropical Desert 2. Cold Winter Desert 3. Coastal Desert 4. Polar Desert Temperature: Reaches above 50°C during the day, which decreases very sharply during the night, owing to low humidity. Yearly rainfall: Quite scarce, as the weather could be so extreme that raindrops evaporate before reaching the ground. Inland areas of Sahara receive less than 1.5 cm rainfall, which is one of the driest places on the planet....

Facts and Characteristics of Visible Light Consists of seven colors – violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. Collectively known as VIBGYOR.Speed is constant, i.e., 3 X 108 m/s in the airSpeed reduces to 2.25 X 108 m/s in water and 2 X 108 m/s in glassIt can be measured by the unit of the lumen, which is the total quantity of visible light emitted by a source per unit of time....

Laws of Blackbody Radiation Blackbody Radiation Graph Blackbody Radiation Examples 1. Planck’s Law Planck’s law gives the amount of radiation emitted per unit solid angle in terms of wavelength or frequency and equilibrium temperature. According to Planck’s law, the spectral radiance at a given temperature is given by Where B: Spectral radiance λ: Wavelength of radiation T: Absolute temperature c: Speed of light h: Planck’s constant 2. Wien’s Law or Wien’s Displacement Law Wien’s law states that the wavelength at which a blackbody emits radiation with maximum intensity is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature....

They are equivalent to undifferentiated human stem cells. Thus, cambium tissues can form any types of cell – from a fundamental structural cell to a complete organ. Functions in Plant Layers of Cambium A cambial cell divides to form two identical daughter cells. One of them remains meristematic and keeps dividing, while the other becomes xylem or a phloem mother cell. The cambium cells produce secondary xylem cells toward the central axis of the stem and secondary phloem cells toward the outside....