Conditions for Determination of Critical Angle Formula for Critical Angle Values of Critical Angle Applications of Critical Angle

Electrical Potential Energy Formula Example Problems and Solutions Suppose q1and q2are the magnitudes of the two charges and r is the separation distance between them. Then, the electric potential energy U is given by U ∝ q1q2/r Or, U = kq1q2/r Where k is a proportionality constant known as Coulomb constant, given by k = 1/(4πεo), whose value is 9 x 109 N m2/C2. SI Unit: Joule (J) Dimension: [ML2T-2] Symbol: U The electric potential energy per unit charge is known as electric potential....

Gravitational potential energy is also associated with the Earth, which we know as gravity. An object at a specific height above the Earth’s surface possesses gravitational potential energy. When the object is released, its potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. The sum of the two always remains constant because of the conservation of energy law. Gravitational potential energy helps us to understand the motion of planets. When scientists send spacecraft to other planets, they can precisely calculate how much energy is needed to fuel them....

Imagine someone standing in the sunlight on a sunny day. The sunlight they feel on their skin is carrying energy. The amount of this energy hitting each square meter of their skin every second is the radiant flux. Formula Units Where: – S (λ) is the spectral power distribution, which tells us how much power is being carried by light at each wavelength (λ). – λ1 and λ2 define the wavelength range of the radiation of interest....

Force Equation Characteristics of a Force Classification of Forces The force equation can be derived by using Newton’s Second Law, which states that the force (F) acting on an object is given by the product of its mass (m) and acceleration (a). F = ma Acceleration is defined as velocity (v) over time (t). F = mv/t SI Unit of Force: Newtons or N (kg.m.s-2) Dimension of Force: [MLT-2] Defined as the interaction between two objectsChanges the motion (magnitude and direction) of an objectChanges the shape of an objectVector quantity – Resultant force on an object is the vector sum, which gives rise to balanced force and unbalanced force....

Eukaryotes contain a mother centriole, and a daughter centriole bound together and arranged near the nucleus at right angles. In a cell, they aid in cell division by facilitating the separation of chromosomes, containing DNA, the genetic material of the cell. Centrioles are absent in prokaryotes, red algae, yeast, cone-bearing, and flowering plants, and some non-flagellated or non-ciliated protozoans such as amoebae. Composition: What are Centrioles Made Of A centriole is made of nine sets of short microtubule triplets arranged in a cylinder with no central microtubules, making it a hollow center, this arrangement is thus called 9 + 0....

Nowadays, scientists use DNA polymerase to copy the parent template strand for large-scale production of DNA through the polymerase chain reaction or PCR. Arthur Kornberg isolated and characterized DNA polymerase from the bacteria Escherichia coli (E. coli) in 1956. DNA polymerases were discovered not only in prokaryotes. In the 1970s and 1980s, scientists identified and characterized several DNA polymerases in eukaryotic organisms, including humans. Mechanism of How DNA Polymerase Works Types and Structure of DNA Polymerases What are the Functions of DNA Polymerase Deoxynucleoside triphosphate + DNAn ⇌ Pyrophosphate + DNAn+1 DNA polymerase needs a template strand and a short RNA oligonucleotide primer to initiate replication by adding nucleotides only at the 3’ end of the growing chain....

It consists of all the interconnected and overlapping food chains in an ecosystem. Each living organism is part of multiple food chains that shows a possible path that energy and nutrients follow as they move through the ecosystem. Previously known as the food cycle, the food web model was developed by Charles Elton in his book Animal Ecology in 1927. Food Web Trophic Levels How does a Food Web Work Types of Food Web Producers Producers or autotrophs make up the first trophic level of the food chain....

Insulin receptors, aquaporins, cell adhesion molecules such as integrin, cadherin, selectins, rhodopsin, and G-protein coupled receptors are typical examples of integral membrane proteins. Structure of Integral Membrane Proteins Functions of Integral Membrane Proteins Generally, an integral protein exhibit three different structures, having two protein and one lipid part. Structurally, they exhibit an alpha helix or a beta-barrel and contain an amphipathic lipid anchor. The different parts of an integral membrane protein are:...

Kepler’s third law establishes a relationship between the time taken by a planet to complete one revolution and its distance from the Sun. According to this law, the orbital period increases rapidly with the orbit’s radius. The importance of the third law is that it has been successful in measuring the masses of the planets in the solar system. This law can also be applied to planets beyond the solar system, asteroids, comets, and artificial satellites....

Prior to the Krebs cycle, pyruvic acid (the product of glycolysis), which has three carbon atoms, is split apart and combined with coenzyme A, forming a two-carbon molecule acetyl-CoA. It then uses acetyl CoA, performs a series of redox reactions, and stores the energy in reduced electron carriers NADH, FADH2, and ATP. The electron carriers then pass their electrons into the electron transport chain and, through oxidative phosphorylation, generate most of the ATP in cellular respiration....

Abundance in Plant Cells Although they occur in varying numbers, a typical plant cell has between 103 and 105 plasmodesmata, distributed within 1 and 10 per µm2. Who Discovered Plasmodesmata Structure How Are They Formed Functions of Plasmodesmata Plasmodesmata are mostly cylindrical-shaped, membrane-lined channels having a diameter of 20 to 40 nm. Their morphology is found to vary significantly during cell growth and differentiation or depending upon the transport requirement of the cell....

What Causes Radiant Energy How Does Radiant Energy Work Properties and Characteristics Radiant Energy Source Uses and Applications The frequency of oscillations gives the magnitude of radiant energy. The higher the frequency, the higher the energy. For example, ultraviolet radiation has higher energy in the electromagnetic spectrum than infrared. According to wave-particle duality, electromagnetic radiation can also be considered particles. These particles are called photons and transmit energy in packets or quanta....

History of Refracting Telescope The history of refracting telescope goes back to 1608 when German-Dutch eyeglass maker Hans Lippershey unsuccessfully attempted to patent one. He is most often associated with the invention of the telescope. However, the first successful refracting telescope came in 1609 when Italian astronomer, physicist, and engineer Galileo Galilei constructed a version on his own and made remarkable astronomical discoveries. German astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler made some modifications to Galileo’s design and contributed immensely to the field of optics....

What Causes the Rock Cycle Steps of the Rock Cycle: How does it Work Why is the Rock Cycle Important Plate tectonic activity Weathering Erosional processes Magma, the molten rock present deep inside the earth, solidifies due to cooling and crystallizes to form a type of rock called igneous rocks. Cooling of igneous rocks can occur slowly beneath the surface of the earth or rapidly at its surface. 2) Formation of Sedimentary Rock – Weathering, Erosion, Sedimentation, and Compaction Due to weathering and erosional activities, the igneous rocks are broken down to form sediments in the form of gravel, sand, silt, and clay, which gets mixed and pressed together for extended periods to form sedimentary rocks....

The process through which a new plant develops from its seed is called seed germination. How do Seeds Germinate: The Process with Steps Types of Germination in Plants Factors Affecting Seed Germination Stage 1: Imbibition: This is the first step where the seed rapidly absorbs water from the environment causing the seed coat to swell and become soft. Stage 2: Activation: The absorbed water activates the enzymes present inside the seed that starts the growth phase in the embryo....

There are different soil types, each having unique characteristics like color, texture, structure, thickness, mineral content, and organic matter. What is Soil Horizon? How Many Horizons are there in Soil? How do the Different Soil Horizons Develop? There is the significant importance of soil horizon in soil science. It allows one to understand the several processes that play a role in soil development and determine the different soil types. It also forms the basis for soil classification....

Types of Blood Cells 1. Red Blood Cells (RBCs) or Erythrocytes 2. White Blood Cells (WBCs) or Leukocytes 3. Platelets or Thrombocytes Abundance: They are the most abundant of all circulating blood cells, accounting for 40 to 45 percent of the total blood volume. Composition: They are rich in hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein that binds oxygen and provides its red color. Nucleus and most other organelles are absent in RBCs. Lifespan: 100 to 120 days Functions: Plays an important role in gas exchange, which include:...

In the deciduous forest biome, temperatures range from below-freezing in the winter to 86°F on average in the summer. Trophic Levels in the Deciduous Forest Food Web Producers: Deciduous trees such as oaks, maples, and beeches are the predominant producers in this ecosystem. Small plants, flowers, ferns, and grasses are also abundant. Primary Consumers: The second trophic level is inhabited by herbivorous animals such as deer, squirrels, rabbits, caterpillars, and insects....

The history of the Doppler effect goes back to 1842 when Austrian physicists Christian Doppler first observed it. While observing distant stars, Doppler described how the color of starlight changed with the movement of the star. Relativistic Doppler Effect The relativistic Doppler effect is applied when astronomical objects, like stars and galaxies, move with a velocity comparable to the speed of light. In such a case, the effects described by the special theory of relativity is taken into account....