Thus, cell signaling and communication describe the ability of cells to respond to stimuli from their environment producing cellular responses. Some common examples of cell signaling are healing wounds after injury, forming immune responses during the invasion by pathogens, and altering gene expression. What is the Nature of Cell Signaling How Do Cells Recognize Signals Types of Cell Signaling Why is Cell Signaling Important Sometimes, the cell also responds to mechanical stimuli found in the sensory skin cells that respond to touch or electrical stimuli that use intercellular channels, connecting adjacent cells (gap junctions) to pass signals....

A basic flow chart of this statement would be: DNA → RNA → Protein Processes Involved in Central Dogma Why is it Important 1. Transcription (DNA → RNA) Here, the genetic information gets transferred from double-stranded DNA to the single-stranded RNA molecule. This step takes place in the cell nucleus and is mainly mediated by the enzyme RNA Polymerase. The newly formed RNA undergoes post-transcriptional modifications and enters the next step once matured....

In order to draw a ray diagram, take two rays of light from the object. Ray 1: A ray parallel to the principal axis Ray 2: A ray passing through the pole After reaching the lens, ray 1 will bend and pass through the focus. Ray 2 will pass without any deviation. The two rays will converge at a point and recreate an image. The position and magnification of the image will depend on the position of the object....

The history of this experiment goes back to 1801 when British polymath Thomas Young demonstrated the wave nature of light and hence, is often called Young’s double-slit experiment. To locate the fringes from the center of the screen, one assumes that the distance between the screen and slit is much greater than the distance separating the slits. Also, the separation between the slits is much greater than the wavelength of the monochromatic light....

Escape velocity is the speed required for an object to be projected to overcome the Earth’s gravitational force. The object escapes from Earth’s surface into space without ever falling back. Formula Escape Velocity of Earth Derivation Where vesc is the escape velocity G is the universal gravitational constant (= 6.67 x 10-11 m3 ˑ kg-1 ˑ s-1) M is the mass of the earth (= 5.972 x 1024 kg) R is the radius of the earth (= 6....

It is one of two primary mechanisms, along with glycogenolysis, used to maintain a proper glucose level in our blood. It also provides glucose when the dietary intake is insufficient or during stress, such as physical activities or starvation. Pathway of Gluconeogenesis Regulation of Gluconeogenesis Compare and Contrast Gluconeogenesis with Glycolysis and Glycogenolysis Steps The pathway starts from pyruvate and ends with the formation of glucose. It is a pathway of 11 enzyme-catalyzed reactions....

Different plant cell types form three main types of tissues in leaves. They are: Epidermis – The leaf’s outer (above and below) layer. Mesophyll – The inner layer sandwiched between two epidermis layers. Vascular – Located within the mesophyll layer. Let us now discuss the internal structure of a leaf in detail, specifically how the three cell types are arranged in a leaf in different layers along with its associated parts....

Nitrogen Fixation by Bacteria – Converting inert atmospheric nitrogen (N2)into biologically available forms such as ammonia (NH3), nitrates, or nitrites Nitrification by Bacteria – Converting ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate Assimilation by Plants – Absorbing nitrogen from the soil and incorporating them in the plant and animal bodies Ammonification by Decomposers – Converting the dead organic nitrogen of plants or animals back into ammonia Denitrification by Denitrifiers – Reducingnitrates or nitrites and releasing gaseous nitrogen What role do bacteria play in the nitrogen cycle?...

Fruits are an essential source of vitamins, minerals, and fibers and are thus considered natural medicines. They are also an essential source of a balanced diet. Some fruits contain seeds within them, while others are seedless. Which Part of a Plant Can Grow into a Fruit? What are the Different Parts of a Fruit with Functions? Types of Fruits Importance of Fruits 1) Pericarp It is the edible part of the fruit formed from the wall of the ripened ovary....

The term pinocytosis combines two Greek words, where ‘pino’ means ‘to drink’, and ‘kytos’ denotes ‘cell’. So, the word stands for ‘cell drinking’. It involves the transport of extracellular fluids along with its contents of small dissolved molecules (solutes). That is why pinocytosis is considered a form of endocytosis. Is Pinocytosis a Form of Active or Passive Transport What Happens During Pinocytosis Types Functions Examples Pinocytosis vs. Phagocytosis Though it is not specific, certain ions or amino acids can trigger the process....

Depletion Region Biasing of PN Junction I-V Characteristics of a PN Junction Diode Applications of PN Junction Diode As a rectifier, which converts Alternating Current to Direct CurrentAs a Zener diode that is used in circuits for voltage regulationAs a fundamental building block for the construction and operation of PNP transistor and NPN transistor, which contain multiple PN junctions.As switches in electrical circuits that turn smaller circuits on and off within more complex systems....

The cell’s interior is negatively charged in most resting neurons compared to the exterior. The potential difference across the membrane is about 50 to 75 mV. Therefore, the RMP of a neuron is usually between -50 mV and -75 mV and is typically -70 mV. In a cell where the RMP is equal to the equilibrium potential when the rate at which ions leave the cell is the same as the rate at which ions enter the cell, the RMP is calculated using the Nernst equation: Here, Vm = equilibrium potential for any ion [V]; z = valence of the ion, [C]0 = concentration of ion X outside of the cell [mol]; [C]i = concentration of ion X inside the cell....

History and Original Composition Explanation: How it Works Theory Ruben’s Tube Risks and Safety Measures Ruben’s Tube Applications Then, a loudspeaker was attached to one end of the device and sound was played into it when the heights of the flames changed depicting pressure differences set up within the tube due to the sound waves. In 1866, another scientist by the name of August Kundt gave a similar demonstration of standing waves in the Ruben’s tube by placing sawdust in it....

Compton scattering played a crucial role in confirming the particle nature of light. This process was first explained by American physicist Arthur Holly Compton in 1923, who demonstrated that light behaves as both particles (photons) and waves. Equation Derivation Applications Inverse Compton Scattering Compton Effect vs. Photoelectric Effect The equation is written as: Where: Δλ is the change in wavelength of the photon λ’ is the wavelength of the scattered photon λ is the wavelength of the incident photon h is Planck’s constant me is the rest mass of the electron c is the speed of light The scattering angle θ represents the angle between the incident and the scattered photon’s direction....

Structure: What is Cytoplasm Made Of Properties Functions: What Does the Cell Membrane Do Layers It is divided into two layers: a) ectoplasm – found below the cell membrane and made of the outer clear and glassy layer, consisting of a thick and jelly-like substance known as the plasmogel; b) endoplasm – found below the ectoplasm as the inner granular mass, consisting of a thin and liquefied fluid called the plasmosol with suspended cell organelles....

German inventor and mechanical engineer Rudolf Diesel invented the Diesel engine in 1893. Thermodynamic Process PV Diagram Thermal Efficiency 1. Intake Stroke During the intake stroke, the engine’s piston moves downward from the top dead center (TDC) to the bottom dead center (BDC) within the cylinder. The intake valve opens to allow air (not fuel) to enter the cylinder from the surrounding environment. The air is drawn in due to the partial vacuum created as the piston moves downward....

All members of kingdom Animalia are heterotrophs, including dogs, cats, squirrels, rabbits, mice, lions, and leopards. Some plants, such as Venus flytrap and pitcher plants, are also heterotrophs as they feed on insects for their food. Also, many microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi, and some protists, exhibit a heterotrophic mode of nutrition. Heterotrophs occupy the second and third trophic levels in a food chain after the first level consisting of autotrophs....

Inductance Formula Inductance and Shape of Inductors Types of Inductance Factors Affecting Inductance Uses and Applications What is the Difference Between Self-inductance and Mutual Inductance To measure the inductance, we use a device called an inductor in the electrical circuit. The SI unit of inductance is Henry or H, named after American scientist Joseph Henry. He discovered electromagnetic induction around 1831. Some inductors are made up of a single wire and are wound into a self-supporting coil....

Organisms with better adaptive traits survive better than the less adapted ones in a specific environment. These favorable traits are then passed on to their offspring, which become common in the subsequent generations over time. This phenomenon can lead to speciation, developing a new species from the existing ones. Thus, natural selection and other processes like mutation, migration, and genetic drift drive evolution. Who Discovered the Theory of Natural Selection Examples of Natural Selection Principle of Darwin’s Natural Selection Types of Natural Selection Natural Selection vs....